Source Evaluation
Source evaluation is the systematic process of assessing the credibility, accuracy, and reliability of information based on factors such as the author credentials, the publication reputation, the evidence provided, the date of publication, and corroboration by other sources. Strong source evaluation considers who created the content, why it was created, and what evidence supports its claims.
Example: When researching a health claim, a student checks whether the article cites peer-reviewed studies, whether the author has relevant credentials, whether the publication has editorial standards, and whether other reputable sources report the same finding.
Confirmation Bias
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in ways that confirm one pre-existing beliefs while giving less attention to information that contradicts them. This cognitive bias affects everyone and is amplified by algorithmic curation that shows people content similar to what they have already engaged with.
Example: A person who believes a particular diet is effective may share articles supporting it while ignoring or dismissing studies that show no benefit, even if the dismissive studies are more rigorous.
Misinformation
Misinformation is false or inaccurate information that is spread without the intent to deceive. The person sharing misinformation typically believes it to be true and does not realize they are spreading falsehoods. Misinformation often spreads through social sharing, misunderstanding of complex topics, or outdated information.
Example: A parent shares an article claiming a certain food cures a disease. The parent genuinely believes it and is trying to help, but the article misrepresents a preliminary study that has not been replicated or peer-reviewed.
Disinformation
Disinformation is deliberately false or misleading information created and spread with the intent to deceive, manipulate, or cause harm. Unlike misinformation, disinformation involves knowing intent -- the creator understands the information is false and spreads it strategically to achieve a specific goal.
Example: A foreign government creates fake social media accounts that pose as local citizens and spread fabricated stories about a political candidate to influence an election.
Media Bias
Media bias refers to the tendency of journalists, news organizations, or media outlets to present information in a way that favors a particular perspective, ideology, or interest. Bias can manifest through story selection, framing, word choice, placement, and omission. Understanding bias does not mean all biased sources are unreliable -- it means readers should account for the perspective when evaluating the information.
Example: Two news outlets report on the same economic data. One headline reads Record Job Growth Signals Strong Economy while the other reads Wages Stagnate Despite Job Growth. Both use accurate data but frame the story to emphasize different aspects.
Fact-Checking Methodology
Fact-checking methodology is a structured process for verifying the accuracy of claims by tracing them to their original sources, cross-referencing with independent sources, consulting expert analysis, and evaluating the evidence. Professional fact-checkers use standardized approaches that include lateral reading (checking what other sources say about a claim) rather than vertical reading (staying within a single source).
Example: To verify a viral statistic about crime rates, a fact-checker traces the claim to its original data source (such as FBI crime statistics), checks whether the statistic was taken out of context, and compares it with analyses from criminologists and other independent researchers.
Algorithmic Filtering
Algorithmic filtering (also called algorithmic curation) is the process by which social media platforms, search engines, and news aggregators use algorithms to select and prioritize content based on a user past behavior, preferences, and engagement patterns. This creates personalized information environments that can limit exposure to diverse perspectives and reinforce existing beliefs.
Example: Two people searching the same political topic on a search engine may see different results because the algorithm personalizes results based on their previous search history, location, and browsing behavior.
Propaganda Techniques
Propaganda techniques are persuasion strategies designed to influence public opinion by appealing to emotions rather than reason, oversimplifying complex issues, or manipulating information. Common techniques include bandwagon appeals, fear mongering, loaded language, testimonials from unqualified sources, card stacking (presenting only one side), and transfer (associating a product or idea with something positive or negative).
Example: A political advertisement uses dramatic music, images of a waving flag, and a deep voice to associate a candidate with patriotism, while providing no substantive information about their policy positions.
