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History of Science and Technology Cheat Sheet

The core ideas of History of Science and Technology distilled into a single, scannable reference — perfect for review or quick lookup.

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Quick Reference

Scientific Revolution

The period roughly spanning the 16th to 18th centuries during which fundamental changes in scientific thought replaced classical and medieval views with a modern understanding grounded in observation, experimentation, and mathematics.

Paradigm Shift

A fundamental change in the basic assumptions or framework within which scientific research is conducted, as described by Thomas Kuhn in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962).

Industrial Revolution

The transition from agrarian and handicraft economies to industrial and machine-manufacturing economies, beginning in Britain in the late 18th century and spreading globally, driven by innovations in steam power, metallurgy, and textile production.

The Scientific Method

A systematic approach to investigating natural phenomena through observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and the analysis of results, which became formalized during the Scientific Revolution.

Technological Determinism

The theory that technology is the principal driver of social and cultural change, shaping human history more than political, economic, or ideological factors.

Normal Science

Thomas Kuhn's term for the routine, day-to-day work of scientists operating within an accepted paradigm, solving puzzles and refining established theories rather than seeking revolutionary breakthroughs.

Islamic Golden Age

The period from roughly the 8th to the 14th century during which scholars in the Islamic world made major advances in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, chemistry, and optics, while preserving and translating Greek and Roman texts.

Germ Theory of Disease

The theory that many diseases are caused by microorganisms, which replaced the earlier miasma theory and revolutionized medicine and public health in the 19th century.

Big Science

The large-scale, heavily funded, and often government-sponsored scientific research that emerged in the mid-20th century, characterized by large teams, expensive equipment, and national or international collaboration.

Digital Revolution

The shift from analog and mechanical technology to digital electronics that began in the mid-20th century with the invention of the transistor and continues through the development of computers, the internet, and artificial intelligence.

Key Terms at a Glance

Alchemy:A pre-modern practice combining elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, and mysticism, aimed at transforming base metals into gold and discovering the elixir of life. It contributed to the development of modern chemistry.
Astrolabe:An ancient astronomical instrument used to observe and calculate the positions of celestial bodies. Widely used in the Islamic Golden Age for navigation and timekeeping.
Big Science:Large-scale scientific research projects characterized by massive funding, large teams, and expensive equipment, typically sponsored by governments or international organizations.
Copernican Revolution:The paradigm shift from the geocentric (Earth-centered) to the heliocentric (Sun-centered) model of the solar system, initiated by Copernicus in 1543.
Electromagnetism:The branch of physics dealing with the interaction of electric and magnetic fields, unified by James Clerk Maxwell's equations in 1865.
Empiricism:The philosophical position that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observation, rather than innate ideas or pure reason. A cornerstone of the scientific method.
Enlightenment:An 18th-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, skepticism of authority, and individual rights, building on the achievements of the Scientific Revolution.
Germ Theory:The scientific theory that microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses are the cause of many diseases, established by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch in the 19th century.
Heliocentrism:The astronomical model in which the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, as proposed by Copernicus and later supported by Galileo and Kepler.
Hypothesis:A testable, provisional explanation for an observed phenomenon, forming the basis for experimentation within the scientific method.
Inductive Reasoning:A form of reasoning that derives general principles from specific observations. Championed by Francis Bacon as the proper method of scientific inquiry.
Industrial Revolution:The period of rapid industrialization beginning in late 18th-century Britain, characterized by the transition from hand production to machine manufacturing, powered by steam and later electricity.
Miasma Theory:The now-discredited theory that diseases were caused by 'bad air' or noxious vapors emanating from rotting organic matter. Replaced by germ theory in the 19th century.
Natural Philosophy:The study of nature and the physical universe before the development of modern science. Practiced by figures from Aristotle to Newton, it was the precursor to modern physics, chemistry, and biology.
Paradigm:A framework of accepted theories, methods, and standards within which scientific research is conducted. Introduced in this sense by Thomas Kuhn.

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History of Science and Technology Cheat Sheet - Quick Reference Guide | PiqCue