Criminology Cheat Sheet

The core ideas of Criminology distilled into a single, scannable reference — perfect for review or quick lookup.

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Quick Reference

Rational Choice Theory

A classical criminological perspective holding that individuals commit crimes after a rational cost-benefit analysis. Offenders weigh the potential rewards of criminal activity against the likelihood and severity of punishment, choosing crime when the expected benefits outweigh the expected costs.

Strain Theory

Developed by Robert Merton, strain theory argues that crime results from the disconnect between culturally valued goals, such as financial success, and the legitimate means available to achieve them. When people lack access to lawful opportunities, they may turn to deviant or criminal methods.

Social Learning Theory

Based on the work of Edwin Sutherland and later Ronald Akers, this theory posits that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others. Individuals acquire techniques, motives, and rationalizations for crime through close personal relationships and group associations.

Labeling Theory

Labeling theory holds that deviance is not inherent in an act but is instead the product of society's response to that act. When individuals are labeled as criminals or deviants, they may internalize that identity and continue to offend, a process known as secondary deviance.

Routine Activity Theory

Proposed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson, this theory explains crime as the convergence in time and space of three elements: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian. Crime prevention therefore focuses on disrupting this convergence.

Differential Association

Edwin Sutherland's theory proposing that criminal behavior is learned in intimate personal groups through communication. The frequency, duration, priority, and intensity of a person's associations with those who hold pro-criminal versus anti-criminal definitions determine the likelihood of offending.

Social Disorganization Theory

Originating from the Chicago School, this theory argues that crime is concentrated in neighborhoods characterized by poverty, residential instability, and ethnic heterogeneity. These conditions weaken community institutions and informal social controls, creating environments where crime flourishes.

Restorative Justice

An approach to justice that focuses on repairing the harm caused by criminal behavior rather than solely punishing the offender. It brings together victims, offenders, and community members in facilitated processes aimed at accountability, healing, and reintegration.

Broken Windows Theory

Introduced by James Q. Wilson and George Kelling, this theory suggests that visible signs of disorder and neglect in a community, such as broken windows, graffiti, and litter, signal that the area is unmonitored and invite more serious crime. Addressing minor offenses can therefore prevent major ones.

White-Collar Crime

A term coined by Edwin Sutherland to describe financially motivated, nonviolent crimes committed by individuals or organizations in positions of trust and authority. These offenses include fraud, insider trading, embezzlement, and regulatory violations, and often cause widespread but diffuse harm.

Key Terms at a Glance

Anomie:A state of normlessness in society where traditional social and moral standards have broken down, leading to feelings of alienation and increased deviance. Originally theorized by Emile Durkheim and later adapted by Robert Merton.

Atavism:Cesare Lombroso's concept that criminals are evolutionary throwbacks who can be identified by primitive physical characteristics. This biological determinism has been largely discredited by modern criminology.

Classical Criminology:An Enlightenment-era school of thought, associated with Beccaria and Bentham, that views criminal behavior as the product of free will and rational choice, and advocates for proportional, certain, and swift punishment as deterrents.

Crime Mapping:The use of geographic information systems (GIS) and spatial analysis to identify patterns and hotspots of criminal activity, enabling law enforcement to allocate resources more effectively.

Cybercrime:Criminal offenses committed using computers, networks, and digital technology, including hacking, identity theft, ransomware attacks, phishing, and online fraud.

Dark Figure of Crime:The gap between the actual amount of crime that occurs and the amount that is reported to or recorded by authorities, indicating that official crime statistics underrepresent the true extent of criminal activity.

Deterrence:The prevention of criminal behavior through the threat of punishment. General deterrence targets the public at large, while specific deterrence targets the individual offender who has already been punished.

Differential Association:Edwin Sutherland's theory that criminal behavior is learned through intimate personal groups, with the process including the acquisition of criminal techniques, motives, and rationalizations.

Environmental Criminology:A branch of criminology that focuses on the role of place, space, and the physical environment in facilitating or preventing criminal activity, including theories such as Routine Activity Theory and CPTED.

Felony:A serious criminal offense typically punishable by imprisonment for more than one year or by death. Examples include murder, robbery, burglary, and sexual assault.

Incapacitation:A purpose of punishment that aims to prevent future crimes by physically restricting an offender's ability to offend, most commonly through imprisonment.

Labeling Theory:A sociological perspective arguing that deviance is not inherent in any act but is instead a consequence of the social reaction to that act. Being labeled as deviant can lead individuals to adopt a deviant identity.

Misdemeanor:A less serious criminal offense, typically punishable by fines, probation, community service, or imprisonment for less than one year. Examples include petty theft, simple assault, and trespassing.

Organized Crime:Criminal enterprises that are structured, self-perpetuating, and operate across jurisdictions to generate profit through illegal activities such as drug trafficking, extortion, money laundering, and human trafficking.

Penology:The study of punishment and the correctional system, including the theory and practice of imprisonment, rehabilitation, probation, parole, and alternative sanctions.

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