Computer Engineering

A computer architecture where a single memory stores both instructions and data, and a central processing unit fetches, decodes, and executes instructions sequentially. Most general-purpose computers still follow this model, extended with caches and pipelines.

Boolean algebra is the mathematical framework for binary logic. Logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR) are the physical building blocks that implement Boolean functions in digital circuits using transistors.

A technique in processor design that overlaps the execution of multiple instructions by dividing the instruction cycle into discrete stages (fetch, decode, execute, memory access, write-back) so that a new instruction can begin before the previous one completes.

A layered system of progressively larger and slower memory (L1, L2, L3 caches, main memory, storage) designed to exploit spatial and temporal locality so the processor can access frequently used data with minimal latency.

Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) is the dominant fabrication technology for integrated circuits. It uses complementary pairs of p-type and n-type MOSFETs to implement logic gates with very low static power consumption.

The ISA defines the interface between software and hardware, specifying the set of instructions a processor can execute, register organization, data types, addressing modes, and memory model. Major ISAs include x86, ARM, and RISC-V.

Dedicated computing systems designed to perform specific functions within larger mechanical or electrical systems, typically with real-time constraints, limited resources, and high reliability requirements.

Languages such as Verilog and VHDL used to model, simulate, and synthesize digital circuits. HDLs allow engineers to describe hardware behavior and structure at various levels of abstraction before fabrication.

The core component of an operating system that manages hardware resources, schedules processes, handles interrupts, and provides abstractions (virtual memory, file systems) that application software relies upon.

The study of how computing devices communicate over wired and wireless links. Layered protocol stacks (such as TCP/IP) define rules for addressing, routing, error detection, and data delivery across interconnected networks.