Archaeology Cheat Sheet

The core ideas of Archaeology distilled into a single, scannable reference — perfect for review or quick lookup.

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Quick Reference

Stratigraphy

The study of rock and soil layers (strata) used to determine the relative chronological sequence of deposits at an archaeological site. Based on the law of superposition, undisturbed lower layers are older than those above them, providing a framework for understanding when events occurred.

Radiocarbon Dating

A radiometric dating method that measures the decay of carbon-14 in organic materials to estimate their age, effective for samples up to roughly 50,000 years old. It revolutionized archaeology by providing the first reliable means of obtaining absolute dates for prehistoric contexts.

Excavation

The systematic removal and recording of soil and artifacts from an archaeological site, conducted in controlled units and stratigraphic layers. Because excavation is inherently destructive, meticulous documentation through photographs, drawings, and digital recording is essential to preserve the contextual information.

Artifact Typology

The classification of artifacts into types based on shared attributes such as form, material, decoration, and manufacturing technique. Typological sequences allow archaeologists to date sites by comparing their assemblages to established chronological frameworks.

Cultural Resource Management

The branch of archaeology concerned with identifying, evaluating, and protecting archaeological sites threatened by development, construction, or natural processes. CRM work constitutes the majority of professional archaeological practice in many countries and is governed by heritage protection laws.

Ethnoarchaeology

The study of living or historically documented cultures to develop analogies and interpretive models for understanding archaeological remains. By observing how contemporary people make, use, and discard material objects, ethnoarchaeologists generate hypotheses about past behavior.

Remote Sensing

Non-invasive techniques used to detect buried archaeological features without excavation, including aerial photography, satellite imagery, ground-penetrating radar, magnetometry, and LiDAR. These methods allow large-area survey and site discovery while minimizing physical disturbance.

Seriation

A relative dating technique that arranges artifacts or assemblages in chronological order based on the frequency of stylistic attributes, assuming that styles follow a predictable pattern of introduction, peak popularity, and decline. It is especially useful when absolute dating methods are unavailable.

Taphonomy

The study of the processes that affect organic and inorganic remains after deposition, including decay, bioturbation, erosion, and chemical alteration. Understanding taphonomic processes is critical for distinguishing human-caused modifications from natural ones and for assessing site formation.

Provenience

The precise three-dimensional location where an artifact or feature is found during excavation, recorded as coordinates and stratigraphic context. Provenience is the single most important piece of information about any find because it links the object to its spatial, temporal, and cultural associations.

Key Terms at a Glance

Stratigraphy:The study of soil and deposit layers at archaeological sites used to establish relative chronological sequences based on the principle that undisturbed lower layers are older than upper ones.

Artifact:Any portable object made, modified, or used by humans, such as stone tools, pottery, metal implements, or ornaments. Artifacts are the primary objects of archaeological study.

Ecofact:Natural objects found in archaeological contexts that were not manufactured by humans but provide information about past environments and subsistence, such as animal bones, plant seeds, and pollen.

Feature:A non-portable archaeological element that cannot be removed from a site without destroying its context, such as a hearth, wall foundation, posthole, pit, or burial.

Provenience:The exact three-dimensional location where an artifact or ecofact is found during excavation, including its horizontal coordinates and vertical position within the stratigraphic sequence.

Provenance:The documented ownership or custody history of an artifact or antiquity from its point of discovery to the present, important for establishing legal ownership and authenticity.

Typology:The classification of artifacts into types based on shared attributes of form, material, and manufacturing technique, used to create chronological sequences and identify cultural traditions.

Seriation:A relative dating method that orders artifacts or assemblages chronologically based on the assumption that stylistic attributes change in popularity over time in predictable patterns.

Radiocarbon Dating:An absolute dating technique that measures the decay of carbon-14 in organic materials to determine their age, effective for samples up to approximately 50,000 years old.

Dendrochronology:A dating method that matches patterns of annual tree-ring widths in archaeological wood samples to established master chronologies, providing calendar-year precision.

Thermoluminescence Dating:A dating method that measures accumulated radiation in crystalline materials such as pottery to determine when the material was last heated, useful for dating ceramics and burnt stones.

Taphonomy:The study of processes that affect remains after deposition, including decomposition, erosion, bioturbation, and chemical alteration, critical for understanding site formation and preservation.

Zooarchaeology:The analysis of animal remains from archaeological sites to reconstruct past diets, subsistence strategies, husbandry practices, environmental conditions, and human-animal relationships.

Paleoethnobotany:The study of plant remains recovered from archaeological contexts to understand past agricultural systems, diet, plant use, and environmental conditions.

Palynology:The study of fossil pollen and spores from sedimentary deposits used to reconstruct past vegetation, climate, and human impact on landscapes over time.

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