Ancient History Glossary

A fortified hilltop in an ancient Greek city, most famously the Acropolis of Athens, site of the Parthenon.

The central public gathering space in an ancient Greek city-state, used for markets, assemblies, and civic life.

A historical period (c. 3300-1200 BCE) characterized by the use of bronze for tools and weapons, and the rise of early civilizations.

An independent political entity consisting of a city and its surrounding territory, common in ancient Greece and Mesopotamia.

The highest elected office of the Roman Republic; two consuls served jointly for one-year terms as chief executives and military commanders.

A wedge-shaped writing system developed by the Sumerians, impressed on clay tablets with a reed stylus.

A sequence of rulers from the same family or lineage, used to organize the chronology of ancient Egypt, China, and other civilizations.

The study and interpretation of ancient inscriptions carved or engraved on durable materials such as stone, metal, or clay.

The central public square of a Roman city, serving as a marketplace and the center of political, judicial, and religious life.

The spread of Greek language, culture, philosophy, and art throughout the Mediterranean and Near East, especially after Alexander the Great.

A formal writing system used by ancient Egyptians, combining logographic and alphabetic elements in pictorial form.

The period following the Bronze Age (beginning c. 1200 BCE) characterized by the widespread use of iron for tools and weapons.

The ancient Egyptian concept of truth, justice, cosmic order, and balance that the pharaoh was responsible for maintaining.

The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern Iraq), home to the Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian civilizations.

A form of government in which power is held by a small group of wealthy or influential individuals, common in many Greek city-states.

A priest or priestess through whom a god was believed to speak, or the shrine where such prophecies were given, such as the Oracle at Delphi.

A writing material made from the papyrus plant, widely used in ancient Egypt and the Mediterranean world.

A member of the hereditary aristocratic class in ancient Rome, initially holding exclusive access to political and religious offices.

The title of the ruler of ancient Egypt, regarded as both a divine figure and a political leader.

A common citizen of ancient Rome, as distinguished from the patrician aristocracy. Plebeians gradually won political rights through the Conflict of the Orders.

The worship of multiple gods and goddesses, characteristic of most ancient civilizations including Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Mesopotamia.

A form of government in which power is held by the people and their elected representatives, as in the Roman Republic (509-27 BCE).

A provincial governor in the Achaemenid Persian Empire, responsible for administration, taxation, and local security within a satrapy.

The deliberative body of the Roman Republic and Empire, composed initially of patrician elders who advised magistrates and shaped policy.

A massive stepped temple tower built in ancient Mesopotamia as a platform for a shrine to the patron god of the city.